Even after a program is written, compiled, and linked into an executable object file, there are still many tasks that need to be performed before the program does its job. The program must be loaded onto the target, memory and registers must be initialized, and the program must be set to running.

Some of these tasks need to be built into the program itself. Bootstrapping is the process of a program performing some of its own initialization. Many of the necessary tasks are handled for you by the compiler and linker, but if you need more control over these tasks, it helps to understand how the pieces are expected to fit together.

This chapter will introduce you to the concepts involved in program loading, initialization, and startup.

This chapter does not cover dynamic loading.

This chapter currently provides examples for the C6000 device family. Refer to your device documentation for various device-specific aspects of bootstrapping.

3.1 Loading

A program needs to be placed into the target device's memory before it may be executed. Loading is the process of preparing a program for execution by initializing device memory with the program's code and data. A loader might be another program on the device, an external agent (for example, a debugger), or the device might initialize itself after power-on, which is known as bootstrap loading, or bootloading.

The loader is responsible for constructing the load image in memory before the program starts. The load image is the program's code and data in memory before execution. What exactly constitutes loading depends on the environment, such as whether an operating system is present. This section describes several loading schemes for bare-metal devices. This section is not exhaustive.

A program may be loaded in the following ways:

• A debugger running on a connected host workstation. In a typical embedded development setup, the device is subordinate to a host running a debugger such as Code Composer Studio (CCS). The device is connected with a communication channel such as a JTAG interface. CCS reads the program and writes the load image directly to target memory through the communications interface.
• Another program running on the device. The running program can create the load image and transfer control to the loaded program. If an operating system is present, it may have the ability to load and run programs.
• "Burning" the load image onto an EPROM module. The hex converter (armhex) can assist with this by converting the executable object file into a format suitable for input to an EPROM programmer. The EPROM is placed onto the device itself and becomes a part of the device's memory. See Section 12 for details.
• Bootstrap loading from a dedicated peripheral, such as an I²C peripheral. The device may require a small program called a bootloader to perform the loading from the peripheral. The hex converter can assist in creating a bootloader.

3.1.2 Bootstrap Loading

The details of bootstrap loading (bootloading) vary a great deal between devices. Not every device supports every bootloading mode, and using the bootloader is optional. This section discusses various bootloading schemes to help you understand how they work. Refer to your device's data sheet to see which bootloading schemes are available and how to use them.

A typical embedded system uses bootloading to initialize the device. The program code and data may be stored in ROM or FLASH memory. At power-on, an on-chip bootloader (the primary bootloader) built into the device hardware starts automatically.

Figure 3-1 Bootloading Sequence (Simplified)

The primary bootloader is typically very small and copies a limited amount of memory from a dedicated location in ROM to a dedicated location in RAM. (Some bootloaders support copying the program from an I/O peripheral.) After the copy is completed, it transfers control to the program.

For many programs, the primary bootloader is not capable of loading the entire program, so these programs supply a more capable secondary bootloader. The primary bootloader loads the secondary bootloader and transfers control to it. Then, the secondary bootloader loads the rest of the program and transfers control to it. There can be any number of layers of bootloaders, each loading a more capable bootloader to which it transfers control.

Figure 3-2 Bootloading Sequence with Secondary Bootloader

3.1.2.1 Boot, Load, and Run Addresses

The boot address of a bootloaded object is where its raw data exists in ROM before power-on.

The boot, load, and run addresses for an object may all be the same; this is commonly the case for .const data. If they are different, the object's contents must be copied to the correct location before the object may be used.

The boot address may be different than the load address. The bootloader is responsible for copying the raw data to the load address.

The boot address is not controlled by the linker command file or recorded in the object file; it is strictly a convention shared by the bootloader and the program.

3.1.2.2 Primary Bootloader

The detailed operation of the primary bootloader is device-specific. Some devices have complex capabilities such as booting from an I/O peripheral or configuring memory controller parameters.

3.1.2.3 Secondary Bootloader

The hex converter assumes the secondary bootloader is of a particular format. The hex converter's model bootloader uses a boot table. You can use whatever format you want, but if you follow this model, the hex converter can create the boot table automatically.

3.1.2.4 Boot Table

The input for the model secondary bootloader is the boot table. The boot table contains records that instruct the secondary bootloader to copy blocks of data contained in the table to specified destination addresses. The hex conversion utility automatically builds the boot table for the secondary bootloader. Using the utility, you specify the sections you want to initialize, the boot table location, and the name of the section containing the secondary bootloader routine and where it should be located. The hex conversion utility builds a complete image of the table and adds it to the program.

The boot table is target-specific. For C6000, the format of the boot table is simple. A header record contains a 4-byte field that indicates where the boot loader should branch after it has completed copying data. After the header, each section that is to be included in the boot table has the following contents:

• 4-byte field containing the size of the section
• 4-byte field containing the destination address for the copy
• the raw data
• 0 to 3 bytes of trailing padding to make the next field aligned to 4 bytes

More than one section can be entered; a termination block containing an all-zero 4-byte field follows the last section.

See Section 12.10.2 for details about the boot table format.

3.1.2.5 Bootloader Routine

The bootloader routine is a normal function, except that it executes before the C environment is set up. For this reason, it can't use the C stack, and it can't call any functions that have yet to be loaded!

The following sample code is for C6000 and is from Creating a Second-Level Bootloader for FLASH Bootloading on TMS320C6000 Platform With Code Composer Studio (SPRA999).

Example 3-1 Sample Secondary Bootloader Routine

; ======== boot_c671x.s62 ======== ; global EMIF symbols defined for the c671x family .include boot_c671x.h62 .sect ".boot_load" .global _boot _boot: ;************************************************************************ ;* DEBUG LOOP − COMMENT OUT B FOR NORMAL OPERATION ;************************************************************************ zero B1 _myloop: ; [!B1] B _myloop nop 5 _myloopend: nop ;************************************************************************ ;* CONFIGURE EMIF ;************************************************************************ ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_GCTL = EMIF_GCTL_V; ;**************************************************************** mvkl EMIF_GCTL,A4 || mvkl EMIF_GCTL_V,B4 mvkh EMIF_GCTL,A4 || mvkh EMIF_GCTL_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_CE0 = EMIF_CE0_V ;**************************************************************** mvkl EMIF_CE0,A4 || mvkl EMIF_CE0_V,B4 mvkh EMIF_CE0,A4 || mvkh EMIF_CE0_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_CE1 = EMIF_CE1_V (setup for 8−bit async) ;**************************************************************** mvkl EMIF_CE1,A4 || mvkl EMIF_CE1_V,B4 mvkh EMIF_CE1,A4 || mvkh EMIF_CE1_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_CE2 = EMIF_CE2_V (setup for 32−bit async) ;**************************************************************** mvkl EMIF_CE2,A4 || mvkl EMIF_CE2_V,B4 mvkh EMIF_CE2,A4 || mvkh EMIF_CE2_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_CE3 = EMIF_CE3_V (setup for 32−bit async) ;**************************************************************** || mvkl EMIF_CE3,A4 || mvkl EMIF_CE3_V,B4 ; mvkh EMIF_CE3,A4 || mvkh EMIF_CE3_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_SDRAMCTL = EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V ;**************************************************************** || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMCTL,A4 || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V,B4 ; mvkh EMIF_SDRAMCTL,A4 || mvkh EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_SDRAMTIM = EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V ;**************************************************************** || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMTIM,A4 || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V,B4 ; mvkh EMIF_SDRAMTIM,A4 || mvkh EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************** ; *EMIF_SDRAMEXT = EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V ;**************************************************************** || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMEXT,A4 || mvkl EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V,B4 ; mvkh EMIF_SDRAMEXT,A4 || mvkh EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V,B4 stw B4,*A4 ;**************************************************************************** ; copy sections ;**************************************************************************** mvkl COPY_TABLE, a3 ; load table pointer mvkh COPY_TABLE, a3 ldw *a3++, b1 ; Load entry point copy_section_top: ldw *a3++, b0 ; byte count ldw *a3++, a4 ; ram start address nop 3 [!b0] b copy_done ; have we copied all sections? nop 5 copy_loop: ldb *a3++,b5 sub b0,1,b0 ; decrement counter [ b0] b copy_loop ; setup branch if not done [!b0] b copy_section_top zero a1 [!b0] and 3,a3,a1 stb b5,*a4++ [!b0] and −4,a3,a5 ; round address up to next multiple of 4 [ a1] add 4,a5,a3 ; round address up to next multiple of 4 ;**************************************************************************** ; jump to entry point ;**************************************************************************** copy_done: b .S2 b1 nop 5

3.2 Entry Point

The entry point is the address at which the execution of the program begins. This is the address of the startup routine. The startup routine is responsible for initializing and calling the rest of the program. For a C/C++ program, the startup routine is usually named _c_int00 (see Section 3.3.1). After the program is loaded, the value of the entry point is placed in the PC register and the CPU is allowed to run.

The object file has an entry point field. For a C/C++ program, the linker will fill in _c_int00 by default. You can select a custom entry point; see Section 8.4.13. The device itself cannot read the entry point field from the object file, so it has to be encoded in the program somewhere.

• If you are using a bootloader, the boot table includes an entry point field. When it finishes running, the bootloader branches to the entry point.
• If you are using an interrupt vector, the entry point is installed as the RESET interrupt handler. When RESET is applied, the startup routine will be invoked.
• If you are using a hosted debugger, such as CCS, the debugger may explicitly set the program counter (PC) to the value of the entry point.

3.3 Run-Time Initialization

After the load image is in place, the program can run. The subsections that follow describe bootstrap initialization of a C/C++ program. An assembly-only program may not need to perform all of these steps.

3.3.2 RAM Model vs. ROM Model

In the EABI ROM model, the .cinit section is loaded into memory along with other initialized sections. The linker defines a "cinit" symbol that points to the beginning of the initialization tables in memory. When the program begins running, the C boot routine copies data from these tables into the .bss section.

In the EABI RAM model, no .cinit records are generated at startup.

3.3.2.1 Autoinitializing Variables at Run Time (--rom_model)

Autoinitializing variables at run time is the default method of autoinitialization. To use this method, invoke the linker with the --rom_model option.

Using this method, the .cinit section is loaded into memory along with all the other initialized sections. The linker defines a special symbol called cinit that points to the beginning of the initialization tables in memory. When the program begins running, the C boot routine copies data from the tables (pointed to by .cinit) into the specified variables in the .bss section. This allows initialization data to be stored in slow non-volatile memory and copied to fast memory each time the program is reset.

Figure 3-3 illustrates autoinitialization at run time. Use this method in any system where your application runs from code burned into slow memory or needs to survive a reset.

Figure 3-3 Autoinitialization at Run Time

3.3.2.2 Initializing Variables at Load Time (--ram_model)

Initialization of variables at load time enhances performance by reducing boot time and by saving the memory used by the initialization tables. To use this method, invoke the linker with the --ram_model option.

When you use the --ram_model linker option, the linker sets the STYP_COPY bit in the .cinit section's header. This tells the loader not to load the .cinit section into memory. (The .cinit section occupies no space in the memory map.) The linker also sets the cinit symbol to -1 (normally, cinit points to the beginning of the initialization tables). This indicates to the boot routine that the initialization tables are not present in memory; accordingly, no run-time initialization is performed at boot time.

A loader must be able to perform the following tasks to use initialization at load time:

• Detect the presence of the .cinit section in the object file.
• Determine that STYP_COPY is set in the .cinit section header, so that it knows not to copy the .cinit section into memory.
• Understand the format of the initialization tables.

Figure 3-4 illustrates the initialization of variables at load time.

Figure 3-4 Initialization at Load Time

3.3.2.3 The --rom_model and --ram_model Linker Options

The following list outlines what happens when you invoke the linker with the --ram_model or --rom_model option.

• The symbol _c_int00 is defined as the program entry point. The _c_int00 symbol is the start of the C boot routine in boot.obj; referencing _c_int00 ensures that boot.obj is automatically linked in from the appropriate run-time-support library.
• The .cinit output section is padded with a termination record to tell the boot routine (autoinitialize at run time) or the loader (initialize at load time) when to stop reading initialization tables.
• When you initialize at load time (--ram_model option):
  • The linker sets cinit to -1. This indicates that the initialization tables are not in memory, so no initialization is performed at run time.
  • The STYP_COPY flag (0010h) is set in the .cinit section header. STYP_COPY is the special attribute that tells the loader to perform initialization directly and not to load the .cinit section into memory. The linker does not allocate space in memory for the .cinit section.
• When you autoinitialize at run time (--rom_model option), the linker defines cinit as the starting address of the .cinit section. The C boot routine uses this symbol as the starting point for autoinitialization.

3.4 Arguments to main

Some programs expect arguments to main (argc, argv) to be valid. Normally this isn't possible for an embedded program, but the TI runtime does provide a way to do it. The user must allocate an .args section of an appropriate size using the --args linker option. It is the responsibility of the loader to populate the .args section. It is not specified how the loader determines which arguments to pass to the target. The format of the arguments is the same as an array of pointers to char on the target.

See Section 8.4.4 for information about allocating memory for argument passing.

3.5 Run-Time Relocation

At times you may want to load code into one area of memory and move it to another area before running it. For example, you may have performance-critical code in an external-memory-based system. The code must be loaded into external memory, but it would run faster in internal memory. Because internal memory is limited, you might swap in different speed-critical functions at different times.

The linker provides a way to handle this. Using the SECTIONS directive, you can optionally direct the linker to allocate a section twice: first to set its load address and again to set its run address. Use the load keyword for the load address and the run keyword for the run address. See Section 3.1.1 for more about load and run addresses. If a section is assigned two addresses at link time, all labels defined in the section are relocated to refer to the run-time address so that references to the section (such as branches) are correct when the code runs.

If you provide only one allocation (either load or run) for a section, the section is allocated only once and loads and runs at the same address. If you provide both allocations, the section is actually allocated as if it were two separate sections of the same size.

Uninitialized sections (such as .bss) are not loaded, so the only significant address is the run address. The linker allocates uninitialized sections only once; if you specify both run and load addresses, the linker warns you and ignores the load address.

For a complete description of run-time relocation, see Section 8.5.5.

3.6 Additional Information

See the following sections and documents for additional information:

Section 8.4.4 , "Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option)"

Section 8.4.13 , "Define an Entry Point (--entry_point Option)"

Section 8.5.5.1 ,"Specifying Load and Run Addresses"

Section 8.8 , "Linker-Generated Copy Tables"

Section 8.11.1 , "Run-Time Initialization"

Section 12 , "Hex Conversion Utility Description"

"Run-Time Initialization," "Initialization by the Interrupt Vector," and "System Initialization" sections in the ARM Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide

Creating a Second-Level Bootloader for FLASH Bootloading on TMS320C6000 Platform With Code Composer Studio (SPRA999).